Consequences of Altered Prenatal Environment

Consequences of Altered Prenatal Environment Discuss the evidence that an altered prenatal environment (e.g. due to maternal nutritional status, stress or exposure to chemicals) has long-term consequences for reproductive function of the offspring. The Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) hypothesis focuses on the idea that non-communicable diseases, such as coronary heart disease and diabetes, have origins in foetal development. The embryo or foetus can be exposed to certain challenges during its development that permanently alter the physiological development of that organism and this can show its effects postnatally later on in life (Moore 2017). A lot of focus has been directed towards metabolic dysfunction and problems with the cardiovascular system, but more recently it has become apparent that there are also lifelong effects of the prenatal environment on reproductive function of the offspring. Aspects of the prenatal environment include maternal malnutrition, maternal stress, maternal alcohol consumption, and maternal smoking, amongst others, which can all influence the development of the foetus and its health outcomes later on in life. However, there is a lack of evidence for humans, although offspring o f mothers affected by the Dutch Famine have been followed up throughout their life to see the effects of the acute maternal undernutrition (de Rooij et al. 2016) (Painter et al. 2006), therefore a lot of the experiments are performed on rodent, porcine and ovine models. While there are a number of differences between the mammalian models and humans, such as duration of gestation and sensitivity to the maternal environment, there are periods of exceptional vulnerability that are similar in both mammalian models and humans which allow us to map the effects of an altered prenatal environment from these animals to humans (Zambrano et al. 2014). The incidence of non-communicable diseases in adults significantly increases when maternal nutrition is compromised at vital periods of foetal development (Chavatte-Palmer et al. 2008). During the periconceptional period, it appears that the embryo has a degree of developmental plasticity and it takes advantage of this when being exposed to certain challenges in the maternal environment. This means that it changes the way it develops and adapts to the surrounding environment, which has consequences for later life. This is illustrated by the epidemiological study of female survivors of the Dutch Famine in World War II, which has shown altered reproductive function of their female offspring who were conceived during the famine. The offspring were found to have irregular menstrual cycles, increased risk of breast cancer and a younger age at which they underwent menopause (Sloboda et al. 2011). There was no significant change in the reproductive function in adults whose mothers were expo sed to the famine during late stages of pregnancy when compared to adults who were born before the famine (Painter et al. 2006), which suggests that the time around conception is very sensitive to the maternal environment. The study was conducted by authors who were fortunate to be able to collect the data that they did because, for obvious ethical reasons, a study like this could not be purposefully carried out on humans. As inhumane as the famine was, it has provided us with some useful data to ascertain what is happening in utero when maternal nutrition is compromised. Animal studies of maternal undernutrition have been conducted to add to the findings of the Dutch Famine epidemiology. In ewes, the female offspring had decreased rates of ovulation after experiencing prenatal undernutrition. Even earlier, it was found that the foetal ovary at day 47 already had altered concentrations of oogonia and meiotic arrest in the ovary was delayed even longer than usual on day 62 of foetal life (Sloboda et al. 2011). Growth restricted rats have shown staggered onset of signs of sexual maturation, for example first oestrus, mating and attainment of full fertility were separated in time rather than being simultaneous (Sloboda et al. 2011). Moreover, pregnant ewes on a calorie restricted diet produced offspring who grew up to have reduced ovarian and granulosa cell proliferation and increased apoptosis in their ovaries. This could be due to a change in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis activity or hormonal environment in the ovary which is regulated by the mothers nutritional status (Sloboda et al. 2011). Furthermore, maternal protein restriction in rats delays seminiferous tubule lumen formation and increases apoptosis of germ cells during the neonatal period. Histological sections of the testes of male offspring show some tubules with no lumen at all at even when they have a control diet after birth (Zambrano et al. 2014). Also, apoptosis in the testes of male neonates at postnatal day 14 is increased in those who have experience maternal protein restriction either during pregnancy, during lactation, or during both (Zambrano et al. 2014). There have been many animal studies done using various mammalian models to produce data that we can apply to humans. So far, the data has been reproducible but it is still early days in this field of science so the longer these experiments are reproduced in different models, the better and more sure we can be when advising mothers of the risk their diet may have on the health and reproductive potential of their offspring. Although poverty and undernutrition remain global crises, it is clear that overfeeding and the obesity epidemic in the Western World come with severe implications on health of the population and future generations. Several studies in animal models have demonstrated that maternal overnutrition can affect the fertility of the offspring later on in life. For example, in pregnant sheep that are overfed, the offspring experience intrauterine growth restriction and are born small for their gestational age, but also the females are born with ovarian retardation (Chavatte-Palmer et al. 2008). Additional studies have been done and have other, similar conclusions for female offspring fertility. A mouse study shows that mothers fed high fat diets during pregnancy produced female offspring with a 4-fold reduction in the number of primordial follicles in their ovaries (Cheong et al. 2014). This could be due to them having an early onset of puberty, similar to the female offspring of mothers who h ad calorie restricted diets. Similarly, the female offspring in this cohort also had fewer (1.4-fold decrease in number) antral follicles developing into Graafian follicles in their ovaries (Cheong et al. 2014). However, the cohort sizes in this study were unfortunately quite small (10-15 mice per group) and it is unclear whether or not the groups were exposed to different nutritional challenges at the same time to ensure that the process was standardised. The results could be improved by repeating them with another cohort of mice and perhaps repeating the study in different species of mice to eliminate species-specific adaptations to maternal nutrition. If the same results are able to be replicated across other mouse species, then it is more plausible that these results might also be seen in humans. Some oestrogenic compounds have been observed to have effects on ovary development in later life of neonatal rodents that were exposed to the compounds prenatally. Two examples are activin and oestrogen derivatives (Woodruff and Walker 2008). Female rats exposed prenatally to oestradiol benzoate had delayed follicle and interstitial development by day 14 of age. By day 21, many of the larger follicles in the ovary were delayed in development at the preantral and small antral follicular stage. This suggests that oestrogens inhibit follicular development (Ikeda et al. 2001). As the rats mature, the inhibited development could delay the onset of sexual maturity in the females and puberty wouldnt occur until later. It is known that steroidogenic factor 1 (SF1-) controls development of the ovary (Hanley et al. 2000), so expression levels of genes that SF-1 regulates were studied in ovaries treated with oestradiol benzoate (Ikeda et al. 2001). It was found that ovarian tissue treated with oestradiol benzoate had downregulated SF-1 as well as genes including StAR and P450SCC, which have their expression controlled under SF-1 activity. This downregulation was present from postnatal day 6-21 and was relative to control ovary. Other genes were found to not change with oestradiol benzoate treatment and some had increased expression after treatment. This results indicate that oestrogen derivatives can influence different genes related to SF-1 to be upregulated or downregulated during development of the ovary (Ikeda et al. 2001). Maternal stress during pregnancy is another important factor affecting development and function of the offsprings reproductive system. Corticosteroids are an important class of steroid hormone involved in the stress response and over exposure to these hormones can elicit changes in the developing reproductive system of the foetus. Administration of dexamethasone during pregnancy in rats is associated with various outcomes, such as delayed onset of puberty in both offspring sexes, less follicles in the ovaries of female pups, and lower blood testosterone levels in male pups (Zambrano et al. 2014). Other corticosteroids, such as betamethasone, have shown impaired sperm quality and fertility in male pups (Zambrano et al. 2014). These findings indicate that maternal stress should be kept to a minimum during pregnancy in order to maximise the reproductive potential of her offspring. Although a certain degree of maternal stress is to be expected during pregnancy, chronic exposure to certai n stress hormones can be detrimental to the developing foetus. Having said this, it is unclear what concentrations of these corticosteroids were administered to the pregnant rats, therefore it is difficult to determine what levels of these in the mother could cause developmental restrictions in the foetus. These results arguably are difficult to translate into humans when thinking about impact of human maternal stress on our offspring. Furthermore, human stress is difficult to control, unlike diet or smoking, so it is unfair to attribute blame to the mother for the relative fertility of her offspring when she perhaps cannot control the changes in her uterine environment if shes become stressed during pregnancy. Evidence in the literature supporting this hypothesis is vast and thus not all evidence has been covered. Even though the evidence provided is mostly from animal models, the results can be translated to humans as well, since there are similarities in physiology and metabolism across all mammalian species. The animal models do have their limitations, such as being more or less sensitive to certain stimuli than humans and having different behavioural adaptations, but they also come baring less ethical issues with their exposure to laboratory experiments. That being said, it should also be considered that these animal models have been exposed to extremes of malnutrition and specific nutrient deficiencies, so when interpreting the results to advise pregnant women they should be presented to show that a balance of nutrition is fundamental to maintain a healthy pregnancy and ultimately healthy offspring with normal reproductive function. References CHAVATTE-PALMER, P. et al., 2008. Nutrition maternelle : incidence sur la fertilità © de la descendance et importance de la pà ©riode pà ©riconceptionelle pour le long terme. Gynà ©cologie Obstà ©trique Fertilità ©, 36(9), 920-929 CHEONG, Y. et al., 2014. Diet-induced maternal obesity alters ovarian morphology and gene expression in the adult mouse offspring. Fertility and Sterility, 102(3), 899-907 HANLEY, N.A. et al., 2000. Steroidogenic factor 1 (SF-1) is essential for ovarian development and function. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 163(1-2), 27-32 IKEDA, Y. et al., 2001. Neonatal estrogen exposure inhibits steroidogenesis in the developing rat ovary. Developmental Dynamics, 221(4), 443-453 MOORE, S.E., 2017. Early-Life Nutritional Programming of Health and Disease in The Gambia. Annals of Nutrition Metabolism PAINTER, R.C. et al., 2006. Early onset of coronary artery disease after prenatal exposure to the Dutch famine. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 84(2), 322-327 DE ROOIJ, S.R. et al., 2016. Prenatal Undernutrition and Autonomic Function in Adulthood. Psychosomatic Medicine, 78(9), 991-997 SLOBODA, D.M., M. HICKEY and R. HART, 2011. Reproduction in females: the role of the early life environment. Human Reproduction Update, 17(2), 210-227 WOODRUFF, T.K. and C.L. WALKER, 2008. Fetal and Early Postnatal Environmental Exposures and Reproductive Health Effects in the Female. Fertility and sterility, 89(2 Suppl), e47-e51 ZAMBRANO, E. et al., 2014. Fetal programming of sexual development and reproductive function. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 382(1), 538-549

Questionnaire On Marketing In Branded Clothing

The company was established in the year 1994 as a small design studio in a 200 sq. Ft. Space in Chennai; today derby makes its presence through 33 exclusive stores & 238 multibrand outlets across the southern states.Until 2008, the brand’s presence was confined to a single outlet in Chennai. Post 2008, the brand has spread its wings methodically not only in geographic spread but also in its product profile.The brand’s journey to its present size is in fact a mirror image of its promoter’s vision of life- positive, never-say-die & full of life. Mr Vijay Kapoor, the 37 year old managing director of the company, started life in a very humble way as a salesman selling concepts. Today, his vision has turned a phenomenal success that â€Å"derby† is.STORY OF THE COMPANYIn 1994, Vijay Kapoor wanted to launch a strikingly different menswear brand. He was looking for a stand-out name. He chose DERBY. Because the name sounded international. And it cued adventure, fu n, competitiveness, a daring spirit and above all was very macho. The ground rules were very clear. Instead of being all things to everybody, DERBY decided to stay focused on men who seek the very best in whatever they do, whatever they buy. When DERBY entered the fashion market, the field was crowded. But there was no brand offering choice and class in the semi-format segment at an affordable price. DERBY plugged this gap. When it was fashionable for apparel brands to be available at multi-brand outlets, DERBY chose the Exclusive Store route. And consequently, the DERBY Flagship Stores were born. In multi-brand outlets, DERBY opted for a shop-within-a-shop strategy to maintain the air of exclusivity.Derby does not just sell a commodity. It welcomes every new member into a community that stands for freedom & success. Derby Jeans Community is the only brand in the world that works on adding believers rather than just selling to customers. The brand believes in creating the best commu nity around and this community will make a difference in every sphere of life. Freedom & success for everyone!Chennai-based, fast fashion retailer – Derby Clothing, has major expansion plans on the anvil, which include unveiling stores in major fashion capitals across the globe. Plans also include opening flagship stores in Delhi, Mumbai and Pune. It is also open to the idea of opening stores even in smaller towns like Ranchi, Siliguri, Vijayawada, etc.Derby is foraying into all major cities and smaller towns across the country. It is looking to increase the number of stores from the present 34 to 70 by the end of the year. The brand will be present in a number of premium malls and high streets in cities like Mumbai, Pune, Delhi, Chandigarh, Kolkata, Bangalore Durgapur, Bhopal, Jamshedpur, etc.Derby offers varied ranges of denim jeans with fits like slim, slim straight and comfort and in shirts they provide fits like comfort, muscle and slim, mainly targeted at the youngsters . Alongside, Derby is also adding certain product ranges to the current collection to differentiate its offerings, considering that it is expanding in to various parts of the country. Its Autumn/Winter 2011 collection will compromise of a comprehensive collection of jackets, sweatshirts and waistcoats along with fashion denims, shirts, t-shirts, trousers and accessories.Explaining the rational, behind opening stores in smaller towns and cities, Vijay Kapoor, MD – Derby Clothing said, â€Å"Small towns have increasingly developed a higher level of acceptance, for fashion apparel especially in the men’s wear segment. We have been pleasantly surprised by the response we have received in the towns that we currently operate in. This gives us an opportunity to tap other small towns across the country as part of our expansion process†.Revealing their marketing and promotional strategies, he informed, â€Å"Marketing and promotional activities will be directly focused on the youth of the country. Being in a country that has the highest population of youngsters has proven to be an advantage to a youth-centric brand like Derby Jeans Community. On ground activities, rock shows, college cultural functions, fashion shows etc. are part of the marketing strategy that we follow to reach out to the fashionable youth†.Explaining the rationale behind Derby products being branded as fast fashion, he said, â€Å"On an average most jeans wear brands in the country offer 20% fashion products and 80% basic or core products. Derby Jeans Community, on the contrary, offers 80% fashion apparel and only 20% basic or core products. This essentially makes Derby Jeans Community the only truly fashionable men’s Jeans wear brand in the country†.Position of the CompanyThe company recorded a turnover Rs 6 crore in 2000 from its four outlets in Chennai. As part of its expansion plan, the company is planning to take up premium multi-brand concept apart fro m enhancing its network.After the inauguration of the new outlet of Derby Fashion Wear in the city today, the company’s fifth outlet and first in the state, Vijay Kapoor, the managing director of Derby Clothing, said: â€Å"There is a room for value-plus brand and we are on the way to exploit the branded segment. Today’s consumer is fully aware of quality and our product range has been designed for the 22-35 age groups. We will open two more outlets in the city in the next two months. We are aiming at Rs 2 crore turnover in the first year of operation,† he said.Giving details about the future plans, Kapoor said that the company would expand to Karnataka and Kerala next year and the national marketing would also be taken up in 2005. The company has two units at Tirupati and Bangalore with a total capacity of 1,400 garments per day. â€Å"The current requirement is at 1,500 garments per day and we are meeting the extra demand by outsourcing,† Kapoor said.Th e other name for style and sophistication, Derby Clothing is a premium casual and formal wear brand for men renowned for its trendsetting ready to wear collection. Paradise for the ultimate and die hard shopaholics, it offers a wide spectrum of casuals and formal wears made from avant garde fabrics, available in a diverse range of styles and patterns. Largely catering to the city's ever so choosy fashion savvy junta, this Derby Clothing store is housed within the premises of Spencer Plaza in Anna Salai. This 10 years old store, besides its impressive and exclusive line up of clothing has an eye catching array of funky accessories that include belts and ties which you can club with your attire. You can indulge into its staggering collection of apparels and accessories on any day of the week from 9:45 AM to 9 PM. Derby Clothing also accepts all major credit cards.

The Castle Doctrine and Stand Your Ground Laws

Recent events involving the use of deadly force by private individuals have brought the so-called Castle Doctrine and stand your ground laws under intense public scrutiny. Both based on the universally acknowledged right of self-defense, what are these increasingly controversial legal principles?   Stand your ground laws allow people who believe they face a reasonable threat of death of great bodily harm to meet force with force rather than retreat from their attacker. Similarly, Castle Doctrine laws allow persons who are being attacked while in their homes to use force—including deadly force—in self-defense, often without the need to retreat.   Currently, more than half of the states in the U.S. have some forms of Castle Doctrine or stand your ground laws.   Castle Doctrine Theory The Castle Doctrine originated as a  theory of early common law, meaning it was a universally accepted natural right of self-defense rather than a formally written law. Under its common law interpretation, the Castle Doctrine gives people the right to use deadly force to defend their home, but only after having used every reasonable means to avoid doing so and trying to retreat safely from their attacker.   While some states still apply the common law interpretation, most states have enacted written, statutory versions of Castle Doctrine laws specifically spelling out what is required or expected of persons before resorting to the use of deadly force. Under such Castle Doctrine laws, defendants facing  criminal charges who successfully prove they acted in self-defense according to the law may be fully cleared of any wrongdoing.  Ã‚   Castle Doctrine Laws in Court   In actual legal practice, formal state Castle Doctrine laws limit where, when, and who can legally use deadly force. As in all cases involving self-defense, defendants must prove their actions were justified under the law. The burden of proof is on the defendant.   Even though the Castle Doctrine statutes differ by state, many states utilize the same basic requirements for a successful Castle Doctrine defense. The four typical elements of a successful Castle Doctrine defense are:   The defendant must have been inside his or her home when attacked and the building must be the defendants regular place of residence. Attempts to apply the Castle Doctrine to defend the use of deadly force during attacks that happen in the defendants yard or lot, but outside the home, typically fail.  There must have been an actual attempt to illegally enter the defendants home. Merely standing threateningly at the door or on the lawn will not qualify. In addition, the Castle Doctrine does not apply if the defendant had allowed the victim into the home, but decided to force them to leave.In most states, the use of deadly force must have been reasonable under the circumstances. Typically, defendants who are unable to prove they were in actual danger of physical injury will not be allowed to claim defense under a Castle Doctrine law.Some states still apply the common law Castle Doctrine edict that defendants have some level of duty to retreat or avoid the confrontation before using d eadly force. Most state castle laws no longer require defendants to flee from their homes before using deadly force.   In addition, persons claiming the Castle Doctrine as a defense cannot have started or have been the aggressor in the confrontation that resulted in the charges against them.   The Castle Doctrine Duty to Retreat   By far the most-often  challenged element of the Castle Doctrine is the defendants duty to retreat from the intruder. While the older common law interpretations required defendants to have made some effort to retreat from their attacker or avoid the conflict, most state laws no longer impose a duty to retreat. In these states, defendants are not required to have fled from their home or to another area of their home before using deadly force.   At least 17 states impose some form of duty to retreat before using deadly force in self-defense. Since the states remain split on the issue, attorneys advise that persons should fully understand the Castle Doctrine and duty to retreat laws in their state.   Stand Your Ground Laws State-enacted stand your ground laws—sometimes called no duty to retreat laws—are often used as an allowable defense in criminal cases involving the use of deadly force by defendants who literally stood their ground, rather than retreating, in order to defend themselves and others against actual or reasonably perceived threats of bodily harm. In general, under stand your ground laws, private individuals who are in any place they have a lawful right to be at the time may be justified in using any level of force whenever they reasonably believe they face an imminent and immediate threat of great bodily injury or death.   Persons who were engaged in illegal activities, such as drug deals or robberies, at the time of the confrontation are typically not entitled to the protections of stand your ground laws.   In essence, stand your ground laws effectively extend the protections of the Castle Doctrine from the home to any place a person has a legal right to be. Currently, 28 states have legislatively enacted stand your ground laws. Another eight states apply the legal principles of stand your ground laws though courtroom practices, such as citation of past case law as precedent and judges instructions to juries.   Stand Your Ground Law Controversy   Critics of stand your ground laws, including  many gun control advocacy groups, often call them â€Å"shoot first† or â€Å"get away with murder† laws that make it difficult to prosecute people who shoot others claiming they acted in self-defense. They argue that in many cases the only eyewitness to the incident who could have testified against the defendants claim of self-defense is dead.Prior to passage of Floridas stand your ground law, Miami police chief John F. Timoney called the law dangerous and unnecessary. Whether its trick-or-treaters or kids playing in the yard of someone who doesnt want them there or some drunk guy stumbling into the wrong house, youre encouraging people to possibly use deadly physical force where it shouldnt be used, he said.   The Trayvon Martin Shooting The fatal shooting of teenager Trayvon Martin by George Zimmerman in February 2012, brought â€Å"stand your ground† laws squarely into the public spotlight. Zimmerman, a neighborhood watch captain in Sanford, Florida, gunned down the unarmed 17-year-old Martin minutes after reporting to the police that he had spotted a suspicious youth walking through the gated community. Despite being told by police to stay in his SUV, Zimmerman pursued Martin on foot. Moments later, Zimmerman confronted Martin and admitted to shooting him in self-defense after a brief scuffle. Sanford police reported that Zimmerman was bleeding from the nose and back of the head. As a result of the police investigation, Zimmerman was charged with second degree murder. At trial, Zimmerman was acquitted based on the jury’s finding that he had acted in self-defense. After reviewing the shooting for potential civil rights violations, the federal Department of Justice, citing insufficient evidence, filed no additional charges.   Before his trial, Zimmermans defense hinted that they would ask the court to drop the charges under Floridas stand your ground self-defense law. The law enacted in 2005, allows individuals to use deadly force when they reasonably feel they are at risk of great bodily harm while engaged in a confrontation.   While Zimmermans lawyers never argued for a dismissal based on the stand your ground law, the trial judge instructed the jury that Zimmerman had had a right to stand his ground and use deadly force if reasonably necessary to defend himself.

Benjamin Banneker on Slavery in America - 812 Words

Discrimination and degeneration of different races had once lasted for two centuries in America. Those trafficked by white people became slaves sold in auctions were commonly abused by their masters. Slaves were compelled to perform labor everyday for seven years until they are released. Benjamin Banneker was son of a former slaves, a man who wrote a letter Thomas Jefferson regarding to the possibility to abolish slavery. Through the use of emotional diction, tone, and religious allusion, Banneker emphasizes his idea of freeing slaves of America. Banneker’s word choice takes a large role in his letter considering how it represents his bold stance and idea to Jefferson. Banneker used compelling detailed phrases in his sentences, in particular â€Å"I entreat you on the variety of dangers to which you were exposed† (Line 4), â€Å"It was now, sir, that your abhorrence thereof was so excited, that you publickly held forth this true and valuable doctrine,†(Line 17), â€Å"But, sir, how pitiable is it to reflect that although you were so fully convinced of the benevolence of the Father of mankind and of his equal and impartial distribution of those rights and privileges which he had conferred upon them† (Line 30), â€Å"That you should at the same time counteract his mercies in detaining by fraud and violence so numerous a part of my brethren under groaning captivity and cruel oppression†(Line 35). The phrases, â€Å"I entreat you† (Line 4), â€Å"your abhorrence thereof was so excited† (Line 17), â€Å"howShow MoreRelatedThomas Jefferson Rhetorical Analysis1011 Words   |  5 PagesMy rhetorical analysis is about a free African-American almanac writer, naturalist, and farmer who fought against slavery and who earned the recognition of many high officials of the time, including Thomas Jefferson. As D.L. Chandler pointed out, Benjamin Banneker, wrote to Thomas Jefferson, on August 19, 1791, to condemn the practice o f slavery in the United States. Banneker attempted to persuade Thomas Jefferson of his forbearance of slave practices and the fact that he owned slaves yet pronouncedRead MoreThe Whining Nigger and Benjamin Banneker1344 Words   |  6 Pagesconstruct created during America’s Colonial period. 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